After 1970s Feminist movement in India has turned great shift. Many feministscholars contributed to feminist theory in Indian context. Caste, Class, Gender all aspects are considered in different perspective. This kind of knowledge creation is unique. Theorizing Feminism is one of such effort. Gendering Caste Through a Feminist Lens is a book in this series. It is written by distinguished feminist historian Uma chakravarti. Uma Chakravarti examines the linkage between caste and gender in this book. This is a unique attempt to consider caste and gender simultaneously. This gives deep insight to the unequal Indian society. In the journey of 183 pages of this book we see the journey of structural subordination of women in India. Uma Chakravarti is a historian. Her critical approch gives great value to this book. She tries to conceptualize vast cultural diversity, complex caste structure and patriarchy in India.
The book starts with interesting issue. Upper caste women’s anti-mandal agitation having placards “we don’t want unemployed husbands!”. She asks, Why upper caste women are not ready to marry OBCs and SC-STs. Uma Chakravarti shows the relation between caste and gender with it. First chapter deals with understanding of caste. She gives different perspectives on caste. Caste system is a system of consensual values. It is a set of values accepted by both the dominant and dominated. Dr. Ambedkar formulated caste as graded inequality. This has both cultural and economic aspects. An important aspect of caste is that those who have dominated the means of production have also dominate the means of symbolic production. Each caste is a closed bounded group. All social relations are represented in terms of bounded groups. All rituals, eating, physical contact, marriage are confined to this bounded group. Relationship between caste is regarded as one of interdependence and mutual obligation. Uma Chakravarti also shows the relation between caste and class with the help of analysis of material relations. Dr. Ambedkar had said, “The caste system is a division of labourers, not a division of labour.” First chapter also talks about caste and monopoly of knowledge and coercive power. Uma chakravarti showed tension due to caste and gender with the help of ancient Indian sources. Shambuka’s story from Ramayana, Ekalavya’s punishment from Mahabharata and Upanishad story of Gargi’s questions gives us the insight of the subject. In next chapter she discuss about gender stratification in India. Caste, caste and gender are inextricably linked. They interact and shape each other. The structure of marriage, sexuality and reproduction is the fundamental basis of caste system. It is also the way by which inequality is sustained. The structure of marriage reproduces both class and caste inequality. The entire system of production is tightly controlled by system of reproduction. Endogamy is a crucial element of caste system. It has been practiced in order to preserve caste as a discrete social unit. It has been also practised in order to maintain certain economic, political and social privileges within the group.
Uma Chakravarti discuss various marriage practices. She clearly mentions that the continuation of male vansha or line is the primary aim of marriage. She has defined many terms like arranged marriage, gotra, kanyadan, vansa etc. Kanyadan is not just giving daughter but her reproductive power. The meaning and symbolism of kanyadan is ‘the gift of virgin woman. Vedic literature, dharmashastras, epics like Ramayana clearly uphold endogamy. Any violation of the rule of endogamy is punished by expulsion. It is usually called outcasting. The social honour of caste is contingent upon the purity of its internal behaviour. Women are gateways to the caste system. Hence it is believed that lower caste male is a threat to the purity of the caste. Hence women should be carefully guarded. Pratilomic Varnasankara is avoided because of that. This view of Uma chakravarti shows the subordination of women in our society.
Brahmanical patriarchy is a term coined by feminist scholars. It is explained clearly in this book. It is a set of rules and institutions in which caste and gender are linked, each shaping the other and where women are crucial in maintaining the boundaries between castes. Control over sexuality is reserved as a privilege for the highest castes. Brahmanical patriarchy implies the model of patriarchy outlined in the brahmanical prescriptive texts, to be enforced by the coercive power of the king or those who act behalf of the king.
Uma Chakravarti is eminent historian. She explained caste and gender issues with evolution of Indian history. Historical roots of Brahmanical patriarchy, Formation of patriarchy and subordination of women and diversity of patriarchal practices are the topics which she has explained deeply. Her previous book everyday life, every day practices beyond the kings and Brahmins in ancient India was a masterpiece. In Gendering caste she used same historical perspective keeping gender at the centre. In the context of Indian history she discuss the status of women from Mesolithic era. In 5000 B.C. there was no rigid sexual division of labour. The role of women in food economy was equal. (page 40) 19th Century Hindu Nationalists call Rig Vedic society was the golden era for women. But through the evidences from purushsukta, Vedic goddesses, practices like ‘niyoga’ she shows that gender stratification was present in that period. In later Vedic period ( 800BC) it is more clearly evident. Brahmanical texts such as ‘satapatha brahmana’, ‘grihya sutra’ tell the need of ‘orderly sexual relations.’ Concepts like varna, kula, gotra, koumarya were there in practice. During the period of dharmashastras like Manusmriti (100AD); the caste and gender stratification was much wider. Manusmriti shows structural subordination of women more systematically. Ptatiloma vivaha, Varnasanskara, learning of Vedas by shudras n women were strictly prohibited. During Gupta period (300 AD) and afterwards we can see expansion of caste system. Caste privileges, Ideology, Family at every level we can see the exploitation of women. Uma Chakravarti used wide range of references from Rig Veda, Brahmans, Epics like Ramayana, Bhagvadgeeta, Buddhist literature and so on. Uma chakravarti has discussed the caste and gender issues in colonial period also.
In the topic diversity of Patriarchal practices she has discussed many issues. The idea behind pre-pubertal marriages, Widowhood, Graded Patriarchy, Dalit Patriarchy (Patriarchy within subordinate castes and class.), Rapes are discussed with immense sensitivity in the book. The last topic ‘Caste and Gender in Contemporary India’ deals with present scenario of caste and class. After independence we see certain changes in caste and gender issues. Constitution changed political scenario of caste and gender issues. Dr. Ambedkar gave thoughtful importance to gender issues in constitution. Any privilege or disability arising out of rank, birth, person, family, religion or religious usage and custom is abolished. Democracy and universal suffrage have thus in turn led to changes. The entire structure of class and caste linkages are being reworked under new social processes. Dalit politics specially movements like Dalit panther in Maharashtra asked questions about cultural, social, political oppression by upper castes, elites. Their radical intellectual approach forced liberal intellectuals, academia, middle class to recognize the caste question. Dalit feminists have formulated the position of three way oppression of a dalit women. We can see today that caste question today is sought to be reduced to a battle over reservations. Castes showed their dominance in politics. Rise of OBCs and Dalits is evident. In Uma Chakravarti says, “At the end we must recognize that it’s not just reservations or caste-based electoral politics that keeping caste alive but rather the very factors we have just mentioned: unequal control over property, unequal performance of labour and the endogamous marriage system, which still binds production and reproduction together. Caste violence on women, The notion of izzat/honour in families (honour killings), Brutal killings, Still dominant endogamy in marriages are all serious questions of gender today. She also discussed Mathura Rape case, Phoolan devi, Bhanwari devi rape case. These cases put serious question mark on our current system. We are far away from social justice even today. In all 9 chapters Uma Chakravarti showed interlink between gender and caste with current relevance. That is the plus point of the book.
The importance of this book is that this is a major attempt to examine interconnection between caste and gender. India has shameful history of caste violence. Most of the times women are the major victims. We cannot see gender as a different entity. Uma chakravarti shows the same. Without considering caste reality and Brahmanical patriarchy, we cannot move further as far as gender issues are concerned. Uma chakravarti unmasks the working of caste system in India. She underlines highly oppressive and violent caste structure. The subordination of women and the control of female sexuality are crucial factors in maintaining caste system. The references given in the book shows the in depth analysis. It has references of Historical resources, religious texts, anthropological and sociological research. Uma chakravarti shows how gender is critical to the formation of caste. She doesn’t stop by checking the historicity of her statement. She shows the contemporary continuity of the same. Her interdisciplinary approach gives immense depth to the book. According to her patriarchy in India is plural. It is important to understand subordination and privileges at each level of caste and gender structure. There is a debate in feminist scholarship that Dalit women speak differently. To achieve sisterhood we have to address each strata of women critically. There is a need of affirmative action in solving gender issues. Dalit feminism address the need of the same. After globalization is there a new social order? What is the structure of caste in it? How women are placed in it? Are we experiencing a new society having neo liberal approach with brahmanical patriarchy intact? Is this a new form of Brahman-Kshatriya alliance? Can we say that gender issues are becoming more and more complex due to this? All these questions arise in mind after reading this book. That is the success of this book.
In the decade after anti mandal agitation, caste contradictions are sharpened. At the same time critical analysis of caste is also sharpened. The women’s movement in India was also critiqued by dalit feminists. Dalit women face triple burden as dalit from upper castes, as labourers from landlords and as women from men and their family. For the first time feminist scholars began to draw attention to the link between caste and gender. This book is an important step in this. Brahmanical patriarchy and its clear meaning is another important feature of the book. Hence this book is a milestone in theorization of feminism.
Gendering Caste (Through a Feminist Lens)
Writer: Uma Chakravarti
Published by: STREE, Calcutta.
Pages: 183
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Kaustubh Diwegaonkar I.A.S.
Kaustubh Diwegaonkar 